A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Here are a collection of terms related to menopause and women’s health.
A
Adenomyosis. Occurs when the endometrial tissue that normally lines the uterus grows into the muscle wall of the uterus. The displaced tissue continues to act normally – thickening, breaking down and bleeding – during each menstrual cycle. An enlarged uterus and painful, heavy periods can result.
Adnexa. Region adjoining the uterus that contains the ovary and fallopian tube, as well as associated vessels, ligaments, and connective tissue.
Adnexal torsion. Ovarian torsion (sometimes with fallopian tubes).
Androfeme. Cream containing the hormone testosterone specifically made for women by the Australian company Lawley Pharmaceuticals.
Androgens. Hormones that contribute to growth and reproduction in both men and women. In women, androgens are produced in the ovaries, adrenal glands and fat cells.
Anxiety. Anxiety is a state of worry or unease about future events, often accompanied by physical symptoms like increased heart rate and muscle tension.
Amenorrhea. Absence of periods.
Aromatase inhibitors. Class of drugs that blocks the formation of estrogen in the body’s tissues and are used for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer.
Asymptomatic. Not causing, marked by, or presenting with signs or symptoms of infection, illness, or disease.
B
Benign. Noncancerous. A mild type or character that does not threaten health or life.
Bilateral oophorectomy. The surgical removal of both ovaries.
Bioidentical. Bioidentical is a marketing term for unlicensed, unregulated products prescribed in some private clinics. The recommended hormones are described as body-identical.
Body-identical. Body-identical refers to hormones that have the same molecular structure as those naturally produced by the human body and are licensed and regulated.
Bone mineral density (BMD). A measurement of the amount of bone tissue in a segment of bone. Measuring BMD is the best way to evaluate bone strength and predict fracture risk, especially to detect osteoporosis. Results are reported as T-scores and Z-scores. See also Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and Osteoporosis.
Borderline ovarian tumour (BOT). A borderline ovarian tumour (BOT) is a type of tumour that has features of both benign (non-cancerous) and malignant (cancerous) tumours. It is considered to have low malignant potential, meaning it is not as aggressive as typical ovarian cancers but still has the potential to spread beyond the ovary.
Brain fog. A usually temporary state of diminished mental capacity marked by inability to concentrate or to think or reason clearly.
BRCA1 and BRCA2. Gene mutations with potential cancer-causing effects. Women with these gene mutations are sometimes recognised through their family histories of breast and ovarian cancer.
Breast cancer. A disease in which abnormal cells in the breast divide and multiply in an uncontrolled fashion. The cells can invade nearby tissue and can spread through the bloodstream and lymphatic system (lymph nodes) to other parts of the body.
C
Cardiovascular disease (CVD). An umbrella term used to describe many conditions related to the circulatory system, both inside and outside the heart. Includes heart disease, coronary artery disease (CAD), and coronary heart disease (CHD) as well as peripheral vascular disease. See also Coronary artery disease (CAD), Heart disease.
Cervix. The lower, narrow end of the uterus.
Chemical menopause (or Chemically-induced menopause). Triggered by certain medications or medical treatments – such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, tamoxifen, or gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue injections.
Chemotherapy. The use of chemical agents in the treatment or control of disease (such as cancer). The drugs have a toxic effect on cells and may cause damage to the ovaries, resulting in early menopause for many women.
Cholesterol. Waxy, fat-like substance that’s found in all the cells of our body. It’s essential for various bodily functions, including the production of hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help digest foods. While our body produces all the cholesterol it needs, we also obtain cholesterol from animal-based foods. There are two main types of cholesterol: HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) and LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein). The balance between HDL and LDL, as well as other factors like triglycerides and overall health, all play a role in determining cardiovascular risk. See also HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) Cholesterol and LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) Cholesterol.
Chronic condition. A condition that lasts or keeps coming back over a long period of time.
Clinical trial. An organised research program conducted with patients to evaluate a medical treatment, drug, or device.
Clitoris. A female erogenous organ that consists of an externally visible, highly innervated small conical structure or glans that lies at the anterior junction of the labia minora above the urethral opening and is continuous internally with a short body of paired cylinders of vascular, erectile tissue which branch into curved extensions or crura attaching to the undersurface of the pubic bones and with two elongated masses of erectile tissue situated near each side of the vaginal and urethral openings.
Clonidine. A prescription drug to lower high blood pressure. Sometimes prescribed off-label to treat mild hot flushes.
Cochrane review. Is a systematic and comprehensive assessment of research studies on a specific healthcare topic, produced by the Cochrane Collaboration. It is designed to provide reliable evidence for decision-making and is considered a gold standard in evidence-based practice due to its rigorous methodology and thorough approach.
Cognitive function. Conscious intellectual activity (thinking, reasoning, remembering).
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). A broad range of healing philosophies and approaches not typically used in conventional medicine. A therapy is called “complementary” when it is used in addition to conventional medicine, whereas it is called “alternative” when it is used instead of conventional treatment.
Compounded hormones. Hormone therapies that are mixed for women from a prescription into formulations such as topical creams, gels, lotions, tablets, and suppositories. These compounds are not regulated by the government. Efficacy and safety have not been proven in clinical trials.
Conjugated estrogens (CE). A mixture of estrogen hormones used to treat symptoms of menopause such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness, burning, and irritation. Other uses include prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and replacement of estrogen in women with ovarian insufficiency or other conditions that cause a lack of natural estrogen in the body.
Coronary artery disease (CAD). Sometimes called coronary heart disease (CHD). The most common form of heart disease, CAD refers to damaged or diseased blood vessels that supply blood to the heart. See also Cardiovascular disease (CVD), Heart disease.
Coronary heart disease (CHD). See Coronary artery disease (CAD).
Cystectomy. Surgical removal of an ovarian cyst, frequently performed with a minimally invasive technique called laparoscopy. See also Laparoscopy.
Cystitis. Inflammation of the urinary bladder. See also Urinary tract infection.
Cystocele. Protrusion of the urinary bladder through the vaginal wall. Can contribute to urinary symptoms such as incontinence.
D
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). One of the androgens circulating in the body that is a precursor of androstenedione, testosterone, and estrogen. Produced mainly in the adrenal glands, decrease in DHEA levels occurs with aging, not menopause.
Dementia. A usually progressive condition (such as Alzheimer’s disease) marked by the development of multiple cognitive deficits (such as memory impairment, aphasia, and the inability to plan and initiate complex behaviour) severe enough to interfere substantially with independence or usual daily activities.
Depression. A mood disorder marked by a persistent sad, anxious, or empty mood and feelings of hopelessness and helplessness that affects eating, sleeping, and activity. Major depression is not the same as the mood swings or feeling blue reported by some perimenopausal women.
Diabetes. A group of diseases in which the body cannot properly control the amount of sugar in the blood, resulting in high sugar levels that may cause a variety of complications ranging from cardiovascular disease to blindness and kidney failure. Diabetes occurs when the body does not produce enough insulin or does not use it properly (insulin resistance).
Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). The standard test for measurement of bone mineral density (BMD). DEXA uses the principles of absorptiometry (the degree to which tissues absorb radiation) to determine spine, hip, or total body BMD. See also Bone mineral density.
Dyspareunia. Vaginal pain during intercourse.
E
Early menopause. Menopause occurring before age 45. It can be natural or induced by medical interventions. See also Premature menopause.
Endometrial ablation. A surgical procedure in which heat energy, in the form of lasers or electrical currents, is used to remove or thin down the endometrium (the lining of the uterus) for the treatment of abnormally heavy uterine bleeding.
Endometrial biopsy. A sample of endometrial tissue is removed through the opening of the cervix and examined microscopically for abnormal cells. See also Biopsy.
Endometrial cancer. Cancer of the inner lining (endometrium) of the uterus.
Endometrial hyperplasia. An overgrowth of tissue or a thickening of the uterine lining, probably caused by excess estrogen. It is a risk factor for cancer of the uterus.
Endometriosis. A condition in which the same kind of tissue that lines the inside wall of the uterus (endometrium) grows outside the uterus (eg, on the ovaries or bowel), often resulting in severe pelvic pain and infertility.
Endometrium. The mucous membrane lining the uterus.
Estradot. A type of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) that contains the hormone estradiol. It comes in 4 different dosages: 25mcg, 50mcg, 75mcg and 100mcg. See also Estradiol and Estrogen patch.
Estradiol (E2). Also called 17β-estradiol. The most potent of the naturally occurring estrogens and the primary estrogen produced by women in their reproductive years. Available in oral, skin patch, and vaginal prescription drugs government approved for treating moderate to severe hot flashes and the genitourinary syndrome of menopause and for preventing postmenopausal osteoporosis. See also Estrogen.
Estriol (E3). The least potent of the estrogens produced in the body. Estriol can be produced by the liver from estradiol and estrone. During pregnancy, the placenta makes a lot of estriol to protect the fetus. Unlike other estrogens, it doesn’t seem to overstimulate breast and uterine tissues. See also Estrogen, Estradiol, Estrone.
Estrogel. A type of transdermal hormone replacement therapy (HRT) that contains the hormone estradiol. It comes as a gel delivered in a pump. Doses are calculated by pump (1, 2, 3, 4/day).
Estrogen. A variety of hormone chemical compounds produced by the ovaries, influencing the growth and health of female reproductive organs. They are active in many cells throughout the body by interacting with estrogen receptors. The three main naturally occurring estrogens in women are estradiol, estrone, and estriol. Estrogen levels fall after menopause. Several types of estrogen therapies are available for menopause indications. Also available in some contraceptives but at much higher doses than those used for menopause treatment. See also Estrogen therapy (ET), Oestrogen.
Estrogen patch. Also Estrogen skin patch or Estrogen transdermal delivery system. A form of estrogen therapy contained in a special patch that is adhered to the skin. The patch technology allows a gradual release of estrogen through the skin directly into the bloodstream where it circulates throughout the entire body (systemically), affecting many different tissues. See also Estrogen.
Estrogen plus progestogen therapy (EPT). Also known as combination hormone therapy. Estrogen is the hormone in this duo that provides the most relief for menopause-related symptoms. Progestogen is added to protect the uterus from estrogen stimulation and the increased risk of endometrial cancer. See also Progestogen.
Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) or Estrogen therapy (ET). General term describing a wide range of estrogen types that are available in various systemic and local formulations in oral, skin patch, and vaginal prescription drugs government approved for treating moderate to severe hot flashes and vaginal atrophy, and preventing postmenopausal osteoporosis. ERT is prescribed without progestogen to women without a uterus. See also Estrogen, Progestogen.
Estrone (E1). Estrone, an estrogen derivative, is the result of estradiol conversion by the liver and can itself convert back into estradiol. Additionally, it is synthesised by the adrenal glands. During post-menopause, estrone predominates in the absence of estrogen replacement therapy (ERT).
F
Fallopian tubes. Narrow, muscular tubes attached to the upper part of the uterus that serve as tunnels for the egg to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception, the fertilisation of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tube.
Fibroids. Common, benign (noncancerous) tumours (myomas) made up of muscle cells and connective tissue that develop within the wall of the uterus. Fibroids are a common cause of abnormal uterine bleeding in midlife and beyond. See also Abnormal uterine bleeding.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). A hormone produced by the pituitary gland (located at the base of the brain). In women, FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles (the small cysts that hold the eggs) and the supporting cells responsible for the growth and nurturing of the egg. FSH also stimulates production of estrogen by the ovaries. When estrogen production is low (after menopause), FSH levels will be high.
Formication. Irritating sensations to the skin, ranging from severe itching to phantom symptoms of “ants crawling on their skin” experienced by some menopausal women.
Fracture. The breaking of bone, resulting either from trauma (such as a fall) or because bone has become weakened from a condition such as osteoporosis. See also Osteoporosis.
FRAX. Risk-calculating computer software that evaluates the 10-year fracture risk in women.
G
Genitourinary syndrome of menopause (GSM). A collection of symptoms and signs associated with decreased estrogen and other sex steroid levels that can involve changes to the labia, clitoris, vagina, urethra, and bladder. The term includes symptoms associated with menopause affecting the vaginal area as well as the lower urinary tract.
Glaucoma. A disease of the eye marked by increased pressure within the eyeball that can result in damage to the optic disk and gradual loss of vision.
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH). GnRH acts as the “master hormone” in the reproductive system by prompting the pituitary gland to release two essential hormones for ovulation – FSH and LH. See also Follicle stimulating hormone, Luteinizing hormone.
Greene Climacteric Scale (GCS). A questionnaire used to assess the severity of menopausal symptoms. Developed by Dr. Michael Greene, the scale evaluates a range of symptoms commonly associated with menopause, including hot flushes, night sweats, sleep disturbances, mood swings, and anxiety. It consists of a series of questions where respondents rate the intensity of their symptoms over a specific period. The GCS provides a comprehensive measure of the impact of menopause on a woman’s quality of life and is often used in clinical research and practice to gauge the effectiveness of treatments for menopausal symptoms.
Gynaecologist. A doctor who specialises in the care and health of the female reproductive organs.
H
Heart disease. Any disorder that affects the heart muscle or the blood vessels of the heart (eg, arrhythmia, coronary heart disease, coronary artery disease, dilated cardiomyopathy, heart attack, heart failure, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, mitral regurgitation, and pulmonary stenosis). See also Cardiovascular disease (CVD), Coronary artery disease (CAD), Heart disease.
HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) Cholesterol. Often referred to as “good” cholesterol. HDL helps remove other forms of cholesterol from your bloodstream. It transports cholesterol from various parts of the body back to the liver, where it can be removed from the body. Higher levels of HDL are generally considered beneficial for cardiovascular health. See also Cholesterol.
Hormone. Specifically, a sex hormone (such as estrogen, progesterone, testosterone) produced by the ovaries (in women), testes (in men), or adrenal gland (in both women and men) that affects the growth or function of the reproductive organs or the development of secondary sex characteristics. Also includes non-sex hormones such as thyroid hormone.
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Prescription drugs used most often when treating menopause symptoms. Encompasses ET and EPT. See Estrogen therapy (ET), Estrogen plus progestogen therapy (EPT).
Hot flushes (or Hot flashes). A sudden brief flushing and sensation of heat caused by dilation of skin capillaries. It results in a red, flushed face and neck, perspiration, an increased pulse rate, and a rapid heartbeat, often followed by a cold chill. This is the most known menopause-related discomfort, thought to be the result of changes in the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates the body’s temperature. If the hypothalamus mistakenly senses that a woman is too warm, it starts a chain of events to cool her down. See also Vasomotor symptoms.
Hyperestrogenic. Excessively high levels of estrogen.
Hyperplasia. An abnormal or unusual increase in the elements composing a part. See Endometrial hyperplasia.
Hypertension. Abnormally high blood pressure.
Hyperthyroidism. Autoimmune disorder when the thyroid gland produces an excess of thyroid hormone, leading to symptoms that can resemble those of menopause, such as palpitations.
Hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD). Type of mental and physical sexual dysfunction in which women lack motivation or lose desire to have sex for an extended period of time (at least 6 months), causing significant levels of personal distress.
Hypoestrogenic. Excessively low levels of estrogen.
Hypothalamus Gland. Part of the brain in charge of the entire endocrine – or glandular – system; responsible for releasing GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone).
Hypothyroidism. Disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormone, resulting in symptoms that can resemble those of menopause, such as fatigue, weight gain, and irregular periods.
Hysterectomy (tangohanga kōpū). Surgical removal of the uterus. Does not result in menopause, but ends menstrual periods and fertility. The term is often mistakenly used to describe removal of the uterus and both ovaries, which results in surgical menopause.
Hysteroscopy. Medical procedure in which a doctor uses a fiber-optic device to check for uterine abnormalities. Sometimes performed if for abnormal uterine bleeding.
I
Iatrogenic. Induced by a physician or surgeon or by medical treatment or diagnostic procedures.
Iatrogenic menopause. Menopause triggered by medical treatment. Can sometimes be called induced menopause. There are three types of iatrogenic menopause: surgical menopause, chemical menopause and induced menopause. See also Surgical menopause, Chemical menopause, Induced menopause.
Incontinence. Involuntary loss of bladder control (urinary incontinence) and/or bowel control (anal incontinence).
Induced menopause (or Medically-induced menopause). Triggered by medical treatment, such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or certain medications. The effect can be temporary or permanent. See also Surgical menopause, Chemical menopause or Iatrogenic menopause.
Infertility. The condition of being incapable of, or unsuccessful in, reproducing (in women, becoming pregnant).
Insomnia. Prolonged and usually abnormal inability to get enough sleep especially due to trouble falling asleep or staying asleep.
Intrauterine device (IUD). Also called Intrauterine system (IUS). A device with either progestin or copper inserted in the uterus by a healthcare provider to prevent unwanted pregnancy. The progestin device can be used with estrogen. See also Estrogen plus progestogen therapy (EPT).
Isoflavones. Naturally occurring estrogen-like compounds found in soybeans, soy products, and red clover.
J
Joint pain. As estrogen levels decrease after menopause, the decline in this hormone can lead to increased inflammation, contributing to joint pain.
K
Kegel exercises. Urogenital muscle exercises sometimes helpful for urinary incontinence.
KI Score (KI) or Kupperman Menopause Index. The KI Score, also known as the Kupperman Menopause Index, is a tool used to evaluate the severity of menopausal symptoms. Developed by Dr. A.H. Kupperman assesses symptoms including hot flushes, night sweats, sleep disturbances, mood changes, and physical symptoms such as joint pain and dizziness. The index involves a questionnaire where patients rate the frequency and severity of these symptoms. The total score helps gauge the overall impact of menopause on a woman’s health and quality of life, and it is frequently used in research and clinical settings to measure the effectiveness of treatments for menopause-related symptoms.
L
Laparoscopy. A surgical procedure to look inside the pelvic cavity by inserting a tubelike instrument through a small cut in the abdomen.
Laparotomy. Surgical incision of the abdominal wall.
LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) Cholesterol. Often called “bad” cholesterol. LDL carries cholesterol particles throughout your body. High levels of LDL can lead to build-up in your artery walls, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. Lower levels of LDL are generally considered better for overall health. See also Cholesterol.
Lichen planus. An inflammatory dermatosis that affects the skin of the vulva characterised by the thickening of all layers of the epithelium. The cause is unknown, although an autoimmune process is suspected. Treated with topical corticosteroids.
Lichen sclerosis. A thinning of the vulvar epithelium characterised with sore, burning lesions that can be seen over the entire labia. The lesions can also appear on the thighs, breasts, and shoulders. There is a high association of lichen sclerosis with vulvar cancer. Treated with topical corticosteroids.
Local therapy. Drug therapy that has an effect limited to the site of drug application. It is not systemic (does not circulates through the body, affecting many body systems). Examples include most vaginal estrogen drugs. See also Systemic therapy.
Low libido. Low sexual drive. See also Hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD).
Luteinizing hormone (LH). A hormone produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (located at the base of the brain). In women, causes the dominant follicle to release its egg from the ovary (ovulation).
M
Mammogram. Specialised x-rays of the breast used to detect abnormal growths or changes in the breast tissue.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). An imaging technique that allows the soft tissues of the body to be seen.
Medical gaslighting. Medical gaslighting comes from the single term ‘gaslighting’ and refers specifically to when a patient feels their concerns or symptoms about their own health are dismissed or downplayed by a healthcare professional to the point of abuse or coercive control.
Melatonin. Hormone derived from serotonin, secreted by the pineal gland especially in response to darkness, and has been linked to the regulation of the body’s 24-hour circadian rhythms. Available as a nonprescription supplement.
Menopause (ruahinetanga). The final menstrual period, which can be confirmed after 12 consecutive months without a period. This time marks the permanent end of menstruation and fertility. It is a normal, natural event associated with reduced functioning of the ovaries, resulting in lower levels of ovarian hormones (primarily estrogen).
Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT). Range of hormonal treatments that can reduce menopausal symptoms and prevent long term health risks. See also Hormone replacement therapy (HRT).
Menopause specialist. A menopause specialist is a healthcare provider with expertise in managing menopausal symptoms and related health issues. These specialists have extensive knowledge of hormone therapy, alternative treatments, and lifestyle modifications to help women navigate through menopause with minimal discomfort and optimal health.
Menorrhagia. Heavy menstrual bleeding or menstrual bleeding that lasts longer than a week.
MENOS Trials. The MENOS trials are a series of studies investigating the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) for managing vasomotor symptoms (VMS) such as hot flushes and night sweats in menopausal women, including breast cancer survivors. These trials have demonstrated that CBT can help reduce the perception of VMS as problematic and improve symptom management, though it may not significantly affect the frequency of VMS.
Micronised progesterone. Micronised progesterone refers to a form of progesterone hormone that has been processed into very small particles for better absorption in the body. It is often used in hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to mimic the body’s natural progesterone levels.
Migraine. A condition typically marked by a moderate to severe throbbing pain that is worse on one side of the head and usually aggravated by physical activity. Other symptoms are nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and noise.
Mirena coil. See Intrauterine device (IUD).
Musculoskeletal syndrome of menopause. Refers to a range of symptoms affecting the muscles, joints, and bones that occur due to the hormonal changes associated with menopause, particularly the decline in estrogen levels. See also Joint pain.
Myoma. Uterine fibroid.
Myomectomy. Surgical removal of a uterine fibroid.
N
Natural menopause. Also called spontaneous menopause. The process of transitioning towards the end of the reproductive years, generally between the age of 45 and 55.
Neurological diseases. Include cognitive impairment, memory loss, ischemic stroke, and Alzheimer’s disease.
Naturopathy. An alternative medical system that views disease as a manifestation of alterations in the processes by which the body naturally heals itself.
Night sweats. Hot flushes that occur at night that can interfere with sleep, even if they are not strong enough to cause awakening. If heavy perspiration occurs, the condition is called night sweats. Although it is a myth that menopause makes a woman irritable, inadequate sleep causes fatigue, which may lead to irritability. See also Hot flashes.
North American Menopause Society (NAMS) Practitioner. A licensed healthcare provider who has achieved certification in the field of menopause from the North American Menopause Society.
O
Obesity. A condition characterised by the excessive accumulation and storage of fat in the body defined as a body mass index greater than 30. Obesity is associated with adverse health consequences including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, stroke, hypertension, some cancers, osteoarthritis, and premature death. See also Body Mass Index.
Oestrogen. The main female sex hormone. There are three major naturally occurring oestrogens: oestrone (E1), oestradiol (E2) and oestriol (E3). Oestradiol is the most abundant in premenopausal women.
Off-label use. Refers to the use of a drug to treat a condition for which it has not been officially government approved. This practice is legal and common in medicine.
Oophorectomy. Surgical removal of an ovary. Also sometimes called ovariectomy. See also Unilateral oophorectomy, Bilateral oophorectomy.
Orgasm. The rapid pleasurable release of neuromuscular tensions at the height of sexual arousal that is usually accompanied by vaginal contractions in the female.
Osteopenia. Decreased bone density that is lower than normal but has not reached osteoporosis levels. Sometimes called low bone mass, it increases the risk of fracture or developing osteoporosis later. It refers to reduced bone density (T scores <-1.0 to >-2.5 on bone densitometry.
Osteoarthritis (OA). Common form of arthritis characterised by progressive degenerative changes in the cartilage of one or more joints (as of the knees, hips, and hands) accompanied by thickening and overgrowth of adjacent bone and that is marked symptomatically chiefly by stiffness, swelling, pain, deformation of joints, and loss of range of motion. Increases in frequency with the “wear and tear” of aging and particularly affects aging women. See also Rheumatoid arthritis.
Osteoporosis. A progressive condition that affects especially older women and is characterised by decrease in bone mass with decreased density and enlargement of bone spaces that result in weak, frail bones that are far more susceptible to fractures, especially in the hip, wrist, or spine, often with little or no trauma. In most women, bone loss accelerates during the first few years after menopause, which is related to the decline in estrogen levels.
Ovarian cancer. An abnormal growth of tissue that develops into a malignant tumour in a woman’s ovaries.
Ovarian cyst. A sac filled with fluid or a semisolid material that forms on or within one of the ovaries, usually noncancerous.
Ovariectomy. Synonym for oophorectomy or the removal of an ovary. See also Oophorectomy.
Ovary. The female gonad, one of a pair of reproductive glands in women located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus. In premenopausal women, the ovaries produce eggs (ova) and hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, or testosterone. During each monthly menstrual cycle, an egg is released from one ovary. The egg travels from the ovary through a fallopian tube to the uterus. The ovaries are the main source of female hormones before menopause.
Ovulation. The release of a mature egg cell from the ovary.
P
Pap test. A Pap test, or Pap smear, is a screening procedure used to detect abnormal cells in the cervix that could indicate cervical cancer or precancerous conditions.
Pelvic cavity. The space inside the lower abdomen that holds the reproductive organs (eg, uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes).
Pelvic examination. Clinical exam of the vulva (external genitalia), vagina, cervix, uterus, and ovaries. A speculum is inserted into the vagina and a Pap test is usually done during this exam. See also Pap test, Speculum.
Pelvic ultrasound. A test that uses sound waves to produce an electronic image of the organs of the pelvis.
Pelvis. The lower part of the abdomen, located between the hip bones.
Perimenopause. A span of time (4 to 10 years) that begins with the onset of menstrual cycle changes and other menopause-related symptoms and extends through menopause (the last menstrual period) to one year after menopause. Perimenopause is experienced only with natural menopause, not induced menopause. Also called the menopause transition. See also Induced menopause.
Phytoestrogens. Plant compounds (such as isoflavones) that have a chemical structure similar to that of estrogen and have weak estrogen-like biologic activity. Available in foods (such as soy) and as nonprescription supplements. See also Isoflavones.
Placebo. An inactive substance used in controlled experiments testing the effectiveness of another substance (as a drug).
Postmenopause. The span of time after menopause (the final menstrual period). The average age for entering postmenopause is between 49 and 51.
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) (huahua hua kūao). A variable disease that is marked by amenorrhea, hirsutism, obesity, infertility, and ovarian enlargement and is usually initiated by an elevated level of luteinising hormone, androgen, or estrogen which results in an abnormal cycle of gonadotropin release by the pituitary gland.
Polyp. Growth or tumour that is usually non-cancerous, i.e. benign.
Premature menopause. Menopause that occurs at or before the age of 40, which may be the result of genetics, autoimmune disorders, or medical procedures or treatments. See also Early menopause.
Premenopause. The span of time from puberty (onset of menstrual periods) to perimenopause.
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). PMDD presents as an intense case of PMS with irritability and mood changes, is caused by hormonal shifts in the final week before a woman’s period, also known as the luteal phase. Symptoms usually diminish after the period arrives. PMDD affects between 5 and 10 percent of women. It is important to note that women with PMDD have an increased risk of mood symptoms during menopause.
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Physical and emotional symptoms such as bloating, tender breasts, food cravings, fatigue, irritability, and mood swings that occurs in the two-week period after ovulation and before menstruation, due to estrogen and progesterone levels falling. Symptoms often disappear once the period starts.
Pituitary gland. Gland that controls hormonal functions in the body and oversees hormone production by the sex glands (the ovaries, in women), adrenal glands, and thyroid gland.
Postmenopause. Time after a woman has been without a menstrual period for 12 months.
Primary ovarian failure (POF). Previous name for Primary ovarian insufficiency (POI). See Primary ovarian insufficiency (POI).
Primary (or Premature) ovarian insufficiency (POI). A condition that occurs at an earlier age than 40 in which many periods in a row are skipped or there are no periods at all, which can be a sign of menopause or of very few eggs left in the ovaries. POI differs from premature menopause, however, in that ovarian activity may resume.
Progesterone (P4). A female hormone that is released by the ovaries after ovulation to prepare the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to receive and sustain the fertilised egg and thus permit pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur, progesterone (and estrogen) levels fall, resulting in menstruation. Available in prescription and nonprescription therapies (as a bioidentical hormone). See also Hormone therapy, Micronised progesterone.
Progestin. A class of progestogen compounds synthesised to act like progesterone in the body. Available in oral prescription drugs and combined with estrogen in prescription skin patches. See also Progestogen, Hormone therapy.
Progestogen. A naturally occurring or synthetic progestational hormone. There are various progestogen options: progesterone (identical to the hormone produced by the ovaries) and several different progestins (compounds synthesised to act like progesterone). See also Progesterone, Progestin, Hormone therapy.
Prolapse. The falling down or slipping of a body part from its usual position (eg, with a uterus or bladder if the ligaments holding it in place become stretched). See also Bladder prolapse.
Prophylactic. Preventing the spread or occurrence of disease or infection.
Prostaglandins. Substances in the blood that regulate stickiness of blood platelets; help keep blood vessels toned and elastic; aid in function of the gastrointestinal tract; keep salt and water levels in your body balanced and more.
Q
R
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). A joint disease caused by the immune system attacking healthy tissue, causing inflammation. This is different than the aging-related wear and tear that leads to osteoarthritis (OA). Often affects women at midlife and beyond. See also Osteoarthritis.
S
Salpingo-oophorectomy. Surgical removal of fallopian tubes and ovaries. It can be unilateral (one side only) or bilateral.
Sandrena. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) that comes as estrogen gel that applied to the skin and that contains the hormone estradiol. Doses are dispensed via sachet (0.5mg). The usual daily dose is one sachet and a box contains 28 sachets. Not currently funded in New Zealand but available under Section 29.
Selective estrogen-receptor modulator (SERM). A compound that has a similar chemical structure to estrogen and has an estrogen-like effect on some tissues and an antiestrogen effect on others. Available as various prescription drug therapies. See Raloxifene, Tamoxifen.
Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). The most commonly prescribed class of antidepressants. SSRIs block the reabsorption (reuptake) of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. The SSRI paroxetine is approved to treat hot flashes related to menopause.
Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG). A protein made by the liver. It binds to hormones like testosterone and estrogen in the blood, helping regulate their levels in the body. This protein acts as a carrier, controlling how much hormone is available for tissues to use. Changes in SHBG levels can affect hormone balance and various bodily functions.
Sexual function. An overall term that includes issues of sexual desire, arousal, satisfaction, and attitudes; age- and health-related concerns; and counseling and other therapeutic interventions where there are problems.
Speculum. A metal or plastic instrument inserted into the vagina to help examine the vagina, cervix, and uterus. See also Pelvic examination.
Spontaneous menopause. See Natural menopause.
Stress incontinence. An involuntary loss of urine that occurs during activities such as coughing, sneezing, laughing, or exercising.
Surgical menopause (or Surgically-induced menopause). Induced menopause that results from surgical removal of both of the ovaries (bilateral oophorectomy) for medical reasons. Surgical menopause can occur at any age before spontaneous (natural) menopause. The sudden loss of hormones triggers more severe symptoms than women who go through menopause naturally. See also Bilateral oophorectomy.
SWAN Study. The SWAN (Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation) study is a long-term research project that examines the health and quality of life of women as they transition through menopause. Launched in 1996, the study follows a diverse cohort of women across several sites in the United States, focusing on various aspects of menopause, including hormonal changes, physical health, mental health, and social factors. The SWAN study aims to provide insights into the menopausal transition and its impact on women’s health and well-being.
Systemic therapy. Drug therapy that circulates through the body, affecting many body systems. Examples include oral and skin patch estrogen drugs. See also Local therapy.
T
TAH. Total abdominal hysterectomy.
T-score, Z-score. Values that report the results of evaluating bone strength and predicting fracture risk. The Z-score compares the bone density to similar-age women and is a rough index of the need for extra diagnostic studies, whereas the T-score compares bone density to young women and is a rough index of the need for treatment. See also Bone mineral density, Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA).
Tamoxifen. A prescription selective estrogen-receptor modulator (SERM) that is approved for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer in high-risk women. Although it has an antiestrogen effect in the breast, it acts like an estrogen in the uterus and may cause the lining to thicken. See also Selective estrogen-receptor modulator (SERM).
Testosterone. The male androgen hormone that is essential for sperm production and responsible for inducing and maintaining male secondary sex characteristics. In women, testosterone (partially produced by the ovaries) may regulate sexual desire and may also help maintain bone and muscle health. See also Androgen.
Transvaginal ultrasound. Ultrasound using a vaginal probe; often used to determine follicle growth, detect fibroids, etc.
Tubal ligation. The surgical tying or blocking of the fallopian tubes to provide contraception. In some cases, this procedure interferes with blood flow to the ovaries, resulting in early menopause.
Thyroid gland. A gland located beneath the voice box in the throat that produces thyroid hormone, which helps regulate growth and metabolism.
Transdermal estrogen. Estrogen therapy delivered through the skin into the bloodstream, such as via skin patch or topical lotion, cream, or gel. See also Estrogen patch.
U
Unilateral oophorectomy. Removal of one ovary, which doesn’t usually lead to instant menopause unless it was the last woman’s ovary or blood supply has been affected.
Urge incontinence. Involuntary leakage of urine accompanied by a sense of urgency (cannot reach the bathroom in time), usually because of an overactive bladder. May be helped by medication and/or pelvic floor therapy. See also Kegel exercises.
Urinary incontinence. Involuntary loss of urine caused by any number of conditions, including urinary tract infection, pelvic relaxation, and bladder contractions. Estrogen affects the lining of the urethra, the short tube that channels urine from the bladder out of the body, making it harder to control urine flow when the bladder is ready to release. See also Incontinence, Stress incontinence, Urge incontinence.
Urinary tract infection (UTI). An often uncomfortable condition that occurs when bacteria enter the urethra and multiply inside the bladder causing infection and inflammation. Symptoms are typically urinary urgency, a burning sensation when passing urine, a change in the colour or odour or urine, and/or pain in the pelvic region. Fever and/or nausea may also occur. The typical treatment is an antibiotic. They must be treated as quickly as possible to avoid kidney damage. Symptoms of UTI can also indicate the need for vaginal estrogen cream. See also Genitourinary syndrome of menopause (GSM).
Urogynaecologist. A gynaecologist specially trained to treat problems of the female urogenital (urinary and reproductive) system, such as incontinence and pelvic relaxation problems.
Urologist. A doctor specially trained to treat problems of the urinary system.
Uterine bleeding. Any bleeding that originates in the uterus, including a menstrual period, but typically used to describe abnormal uterine bleeding. See also Abnormal uterine bleeding.
Uterus. The small, hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman’s pelvis where menstrual bleeding originates and in which a feotus develops. See also Hysterectomy.
Utrogestan. Form of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) that contains micronised progesterone formulation. It comes as a soft capsule of 100mg.
V
Vagina. The muscular, tubular part of the female genital tract that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and childbirth and for the release of the menstrual flow.
Vaginal atrophy. Also known as vaginal dryness. A condition in which estrogen loss causes tissues of the vulva (the external parts of the female genital organs) and the lining of the vagina to become thin, dry, and less elastic. Vaginal secretions diminish, resulting in decreased lubrication. See also Genitourinary syndrome of menopause.
Vaginal estrogen. Prescription estrogen therapy that is applied vaginally (as cream, ring, suppository, or tablet) and is government approved to treat moderate to severe vaginal dryness and atrophy. Most vaginal estrogen therapies provide local, not systemic, treatment. See also Local therapy.
Vaginal lubricant. Nonprescription, water-based products that are applied to the vagina to decrease friction and reduce discomfort during intercourse.
Vaginal moisturiser. Nonprescription products similar to vaginal lubricants, but offering longer duration of effect by replenishing and maintaining water content in the vagina, often preferred by women who have symptoms of irritation, itching, and burning that are not limited to intercourse. Vaginal moisturisers also help to keep a healthy pH (level of acidity) in the vagina, helping to guard against infection (but not sexually transmitted infections).
Vasomotor symptoms. Also known as hot flushes and night sweats, they are the the most recognisable symptoms during perimenopause and postmenopause. These intense waves of heat around the head, face, chest, and neck are triggered when hormone fluctuations cause blood vessels to constrict and dilate erratically. Hot flushes can be accompanied by a racing heart. See also Hot flushes, Night sweats.
Vitamin D. A hormone-like nutrient that enables the body to absorb calcium and maintain bone health. It is produced in the skin in response to sunlight (without sunscreen) and is also available in supplement form for those with limited sun exposure.
Vulva. The external parts of the female genitalia (lips or labia) around the opening of the vagina.
Vulvodynia. Chronic discomfort of the vulva of uncertain cause that is experienced as burning or shooting pain, stinging, or irritation.
W
Weight-bearing exercise. Exercise during which bones and muscles work against the force of gravity or bear the body’s weight. Examples include brisk walking, jogging, dancing, and resistance training exercises. May slow bone loss in the early postmenopausal years and reduce fracture risk.
Women’s Health Initiative (WHI). A large U.S. study launched in 1991 to investigate major health concerns in postmenopausal women. In 2002, part of the study was halted early after data suggested hormone therapy increased the risk of breast cancer, heart disease, and stroke. These results were later found to be misinterpreted and overstated for many women, especially younger women close to menopause. The findings caused widespread fear and a sharp drop in hormone therapy use – fear that still lingers today.
Women’s health specialist. A doctor, nurse practitioner, physician assistant, or other allied health professional specialising in women’s health issues.
X
Y
Z
Z-score, T-score. See T-score.
References
North American Menopause Society (NAMS), Menopause Glossary.
[Updated: 14 July 2025]
Surgical Menopause New Zealand Trust 